Large-scale genotypic identification reveals density-dependent natal dispersal patterns in an elusive bird of prey.

BACKGROUND: Natal dispersal, the distance between site of birth and site of first breeding, has a fundamental role in population dynamics and species' responses to environmental changes. Population density is considered a key driver of natal dispersal. However, few studies have been able to examine densities at both the natal and the settlement site, which is critical for understanding the role of density in dispersal. Additionally, the role of density on natal dispersal remains poorly understood in long-lived and slowly reproducing species, due to their prolonged dispersal periods and often elusive nature. We studied the natal dispersal of the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) in response to local breeder densities. We investigated the effects of the number of active territories around the natal site on (a) natal dispersal distance and (b) the difference between natal and settlement site breeder density. We were interested in whether eagles showed tendencies of conspecific attraction (positive density-dependence) or intraspecific competition (negative density-dependence) and how this related to settlement site breeder density. METHODS: We used a combination of long-term visual and genotypic identification to match individuals from their breeding site to their natal nest. We identified natal dispersal events for 355 individuals hatched between 1984 and 2015 in the Baltic Sea coast and Arctic areas of Finland. Of those, 251 were identified by their genotype. RESULTS: Individuals born in high-density areas dispersed shorter distances than those born in low-density areas, but settled at lower density breeding sites in comparison to their natal site. Eagles born in low natal area densities dispersed farther but settled in higher density breeding sites compared to their natal site. CONCLUSIONS: We show that eagles might be attracted by conspecifics (positive density-dependence) to identify high-quality habitats or find mates, but do not settle in the most densely populated areas. This indicates that natal dispersal is affected by an interplay of conspecific attraction and intraspecific competition, which has implications for population dynamics of white-tailed eagles, but also other top predators. Furthermore, our study demonstrates the value of long-term collection of both nestling and (non-invasive) adult DNA samples, and thereafter using genotype matching to identify individuals in long-lived and elusive species.

Early-life diet specificity is associated with long-lasting differences in apparent survival in a generalist predator.

Early-life conditions can have long-term fitness consequences. However, it is still unclear what optimal rearing conditions are, especially for long-lived carnivores. A more diverse diet ('balanced diet') might optimize nutrient availability and allow young to make experiences with a larger diversity of prey, whereas a narrow diet breadth ('specialized diet') might result in overall higher energy net gain. A diet that is dominated by a specific prey type (i.e. fish, 'prey type hypothesis') might be beneficial or detrimental, depending for example, on its toxicity or contaminant load. Generalist predators such as the white-tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla provide an interesting possibility to examine the relationship between early life diet and long-term offspring survival. In the Åland Islands, an archipelago in the Baltic Sea, white-tailed eagles live in various coastal habitats and feed on highly variable proportions of birds and fish. We use data from 21,116 prey individuals that were collected from 120 territories during the annual surveys, to examine how early-life diet is associated with apparent annual survival of 574 ringed and molecular-sexed eaglets. We supplement this analysis by assessing the relationships between diet, reproductive performance and nestling physical condition, to consider whether they are confounding with possible long-term associations. We find that early-life diet is associated with long-term fitness: Nestlings that are fed a diverse diet are in lower physical condition but have higher survival rates. Eagles that are fed more fish as nestlings have lower survival as breeding-age adults, but territories associated with fish-rich diets have higher breeding success. Our results show that young carnivores benefit from a high diversity of prey in their natal territory, either through a nutritional or learning benefit, explaining the higher survival rates. The strong relationship between early-life diet and adult survival suggests that early life shapes adult foraging decisions and that eating fish is associated with high costs. This could be due to high levels of contaminants or high competition for fish-rich territories. Long-lasting consequences of early-life diet are likely not only limited to individual-level consequences but have the potential to drive eco-evolutionary dynamics in this population.

Spatial and dietary sources of elevated mercury exposure in white-tailed eagle nestlings in an Arctic freshwater environment.

Human-induced mercury (Hg) contamination is of global concern and its effects on wildlife remain of high concern, especially in environmental hotspots such as inland aquatic ecosystems. Mercury biomagnifies through the food web resulting in high exposure in apex predators, such as the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), making them excellent sentinel species for environmental Hg contamination. An expanding population of white-tailed eagles is inhabiting a sparsely populated inland area in Lapland, northern Finland, mainly around two large reservoirs flooded 50 years ago. As previous preliminary work revealed elevated Hg levels in this population, we measured Hg exposure along with dietary proxies (δ13C and δ15N) in body feathers collected from white-tailed eagle nestlings in this area between 2007 and 2018. Mercury concentrations were investigated in relation to territory characteristics, proximity to the reservoirs and dietary ecology as potential driving factors of Hg contamination. Mercury concentrations in the nestlings (4.97-31.02 µg g-1 dw) were elevated, compared to earlier reported values in nestlings from the Finnish Baltic coast, and exceeded normal background levels (≤5.00 µg g-1) while remaining below the tentative threshold of elevated risk for Hg exposure mediated health effect (>40.00 µg g-1). The main drivers of Hg contamination were trophic position (proxied by δ15N), the dietary proportion of the predatory fish pike (Esox lucius), and the vicinity to the Porttipahta reservoir. We also identified a potential evolutionary trap, as increased intake of the preferred prey, pike, increases exposure. All in all, we present results for poorly understood freshwater lake environments and show that more efforts should be dedicated to further unravel potentially complex pathways of Hg exposure to wildlife.

Lead poisoning and other human-related factors cause significant mortality in white-tailed eagles.

The white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) suffered a severe population decline due to environmental pollutants in the Baltic Sea area ca. 50 years ago but has since been recovering. The main threats for the white-tailed eagle in Finland are now often related to human activities. We examined the human impact on the white-tailed eagle by determining mortality factors of 123 carcasses collected during 2000-2014. Routine necropsy with chemical analyses for lead and mercury were done on all carcasses. We found human-related factors accounting for 60% of the causes of death. The most important of these was lead poisoning (31% of all cases) followed by human-related accidents (e.g. electric power lines and traffic) (24%). The temporal and regional patterns of occurrence of lead poisonings suggested spent lead ammunition as the source. Lead shot was found in the gizzards of some lead-poisoned birds. Scavenging behaviour exposes the white-tailed eagle to lead from spent ammunition.

Mortality factors, helminth burden, and contaminant residues in white-tailed sea eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) from Finland.

Eleven white-tailed sea eagles (WSEs) (Haliaeetus albicilla) collected in Finland between 1994 and 2001 were examined for their causes of death, including analyses of ubiquitous environmental contaminants and parasites. Four WSEs died due to electrocution. Two were lead poisoned and another had fragments of a lead bullet in its gizzard. An 11-year-old female drowned entangled in fishing gear, but also had mercury levels in its liver and kidneys known for detrimental physiological effects. One WSE was evidently killed by an intraspecific conflict, which was also assumed to be with another bird. The mortality factors of two WSEs could not be clarified, but one had a lead level of 4.604 microg g(-1) in its liver, indicating high lead exposure at a clinically relevant concentration. All organ levels of chlorinated pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and cadmium were moderate and not harmful for birds of prey. Seven helminth species, but no ectoparasites or coccidians, were found in 8 of 10 WSEs investigated for parasites. The highest prevalence of 40% was found for the liver fluke Metorchis billis, but no severe parasitosis was diagnosed for the eagles. The two acanthocephalan species Corynosoma semerme and Polymorphus meyeri are both new records for WSEs.